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%\VignetteIndexEntry{Adjusted Survival Curves}

<<init, echo=FALSE>>=
options(continue="  ", width=60)
options(SweaveHooks=list(fig=function() par(mar=c(4.1, 4.1, .3, 1.1))))
pdf.options(pointsize=8) #text in graph about the same as regular text
library(survival, quietly=TRUE)
fdata <- flchain[flchain$futime > 7,]
fdata$age2 <- cut(fdata$age, c(0,54, 59,64, 69,74,79, 89, 110),
                  labels = c(paste(c(50,55,60,65,70,75,80),
                                 c(54,59,64,69,74,79,89), sep='-'), "90+"))
@ 

\title{Adjusted Survival Curves}
\author{Terry M Therneau, Cynthia S Crowson, Elizabeth J Atkinson}
\date{Jan 2015}  
\newcommand{\myfig}[1]{\includegraphics[height=!, width=\textwidth]
                        {adjcurve-#1.pdf}}

\begin{document}
  \maketitle

\section{Introduction}
Suppose we want to investigate to what extent some factor influences
survival, as an example we might compare the experience of 
diabetic patients who are using metformin versus those on injected
insulin as their primary treatment modality.  
There is some evidence that metformin has a positive influence,
particularly in cancers, 
but the ascertainment is confounded by the fact that it is a
first line therapy:
the patients on metformin will on average be younger and have had
a diabetes diagnosis for a shorter amount of time than those
using insulin.
``Young people live longer'' is not a particularly novel observation.


The ideal way to test this is with a controlled clinical trial.
This is of course not always possible, and assessments using available 
data that includes and adjusts for such confounders is also needed.
There is extensive literature --- and debate --- on this topic in the 
areas of modeling and testing.
The subtopic of how to create honest survival curve estimates in the
presence of confounders is less well known, and is the focus
of this note.
   
Assume that we have an effect of interest, treatment say, 
and a set of possible confounding variables. 
Creation a pair of adjusted survival curves has two parts:
definition of a reference population for the confounders, 
and then the computation of estimated curves for
that population.  There are important choices in both steps.
The first, definition of a target, is often not explicitly stated but
can be critical.
If an outcome differs with age, myocardial infarction say, and two treatments
also had age dependent efficacy, then the comparison will depend greatly on
whether we are talking about a population of young, middle aged, or older 
subjects.

The computational step has two main approaches.  
The first, sometimes known as \emph{marginal} analysis, first reweights
the data such that each subgroup's weighted distribution matches that
of our population target.
An immediate consequence is that all subgroups will be 
 balanced with respect to the confounding variables.
We can then proceed with a simple analysis of survival using the 
reformulated data, ignoring the confounders.
The second approach seeks to understand and model the effect of each
confounder, with this we can then correct for them.  
From a comprehensive overall model we can obtain predicted survival curves
for any configuration of variables, and from these get predicted overall
curves for the reference population.
This is often called the \emph{conditional} approach since we are
using conditional survival curves given covariates $x$.

A third but more minor choice is division of the covariates $x$ into effects
of interest vs. confounders.  
For instance, we might want to see separate curves for two treatments, each
adjusted for age and sex.  The reference population will describe the age and
sex distribution.  For simplicity we will use $x$ to describe all the
confounding variables and use $c$ for the control variable(s), e.g. treatment.
The set $c$ might be empty, producing a single overall curve, but this is
the uncommon case.
As shown below, our two methods differ essentially in the \emph{order}
in which the two necessary operations are done, balancing and survival
curve creation.
\begin{center}
  \begin{tabular}{rccc}
    Marginal: & balance data on $x$ & $\longrightarrow$ & 
             form survival curves for each $c$\\
    Conditional: & predicted curves for $\{x,c\}$ subset
    & $\longrightarrow$ & average the predictions for each $c$
   \end{tabular}
\end{center}
We can think of them as ``balance and then model'' versus 
``model then balance''.
An analysis might use a combinations of these, of course, balancing on
some factors and modeling others.
All analyses are marginal analyses with respect to important predictors
that are unknown to us, although in that case we have no assurance of
balance on those factors.

\begin{figure}[tb]
  \myfig{flc1}
  \caption{Survival of \Sexpr{nrow(flchain)}  residents of Olmsted County, 
    broken into three cohorts based on FLC value.}
  \label{flc1}
\end{figure}

\section{Free Light Chain}
Our example data set for this comparison uses a particular
assay of plasma immunoglobulins and is based on work of Dr Angela Dispenzieri
and her colleagues at the Mayo Clinic \cite{Dispenzieri12}.
In brief: plasma cells (PC) are responsible for the production of
immunoglobulins, but PC comprise only a small portion ($<1$\%) of the 
total blood and marrow hematapoetic cell population in normal patients.
The normal human repertoire is estimated to contain over
$10^{8}$ unique immunoglobulins, conferring a broad range of immune
protection.  In multiple myeloma, the most common form of plasma
cell malignancy, almost all of
the circulating antigen will be identical, the product of a single malignant 
clone.
An electrophoresis examination of circulating immunoglobulins will
exhibit a ``spike'' corresponding to this unique molecule.
This anomaly is used both as a diagnostic method and in monitoring
the course of the disease under treatment.

The presence of a similar, albeit much smaller, spike in normal patients has
been a long term research interest of the Mayo Clinic
hematology research group \cite{Kyle93}.  In 1995
Dr Robert Kyle undertook a population based study of this, and collected
serum samples on 19,261 of the 24,539 residents of Olmsted County, Minnesota,
aged 50 years or more \cite{Kyle06}.
In 2010 Dr. Angela Dispenzieri assayed a sub fraction of the immunoglobulins,
the free light chain (FLC), on 15,748 of these subjects who had sufficient 
remaining sera from the original sample collection.
All studies took place under the oversight of the appropriate Institutional 
Review Boards, which ensure rigorous safety and ethical standards in
research.

A subset of the Dispenzieri study is available in the survival
package as data set \texttt{flchain}.  
Because the original study assayed nearly the entire population, there is
concern that some portions of the anonymized data could be linked to actual
subjects by a diligent searcher, and so only a subset of the study has been
made available as a measure to strengthen anonymity.
It was randomly selected from the whole within sex and age 
group strata so as to preserve the age/sex structure. 
The data set contains 3 subjects whose blood sample was obtained on the day
of their death.  It is rather odd to think of a sample obtained on
the final day as ``predicting'' death, or indeed for any results obtained
during a patient's final mortality cascade. 
There are also a few patients with no follow-up beyond the clinic visit
at which the assay occurred.
We have chosen in this analysis to exclude 
the handful of subjects with less 
than 7 days of follow-up, leaving \Sexpr{nrow(fdata)} observations.


\begin{table} \centering
  \begin{tabular}{l|cccc}
  & 50--59 & 60--69 & 70--79 & 80+ \\ \hline

<<echo=FALSE, fig=FALSE, results=tex>>=
group3 <- factor(1+ 1*(fdata$flc.grp >7) + 1*(fdata$flc.grp >9),
                      levels=1:3, 
                      labels=c("FLC < 3.38", "3.38 - 4.71", "FLC > 4.71"))
age1 <- cut(fdata$age, c(49,59,69,79, 110))
levels(age1) <- c(paste(c(50,60,70), c(59,69,79), sep='-'), '80+')
temp1 <- table(group3, age1)
temp2 <- round(100* temp1/rowSums(temp1))
pfun <- function(x,y) {
    paste(ifelse(x<1000, "\\phantom{0}", ""), x, " (", 
          ifelse(y<10,   "\\phantom{0}", ""), y,  ") ", sep="")
}
cat(paste(c("FLC $<$ 3.38", pfun(temp1[1,], temp2[1,])), collapse=" & "), "\\\\\n")
cat(paste(c("FLC 3.38--4.71", pfun(temp1[2,], temp2[2,])), collapse=" & "), "\\\\\n")
cat(paste(c("FLC $>$ 4.71", pfun(temp1[3,], temp2[3,])), collapse=" & "), "\n")
@ 
\end{tabular}
\caption{Comparison of the age distributions (percents) for each of the
  three groups.}
\label{tflc1}
\end{table}

Figure \ref{flc1} shows the survival curves for three subgroups of
the patients: those whose total free light chain (FLC) is in the upper
10\% of all values found in the full study,
those in the 70--89th percentile, and the remainder.
There is a clear survival effect.  
Average free light chain amounts rise with age, however, 
at least in part because it is eliminated through the kidneys and renal
function declines with age.  
Table \ref{tflc1} shows the age distribution for each of the three groups. 
In the highest decile of FLC (group 3)  over half the subjects are
age 70 or older compared to only 23\% in those below the 70th percentile.
How much of the survival difference is truly associated with FLC
and how much is simply an artifact of age?
 (The cut points are arbitrary, but we have chosen to mimic the original study
and retain them.  Division into three groups is a convenient number to 
illustrate the methods in this vignette, but we do not make any claim that
such a categorization is optimal or even sensible statistical practice.)
 The R code for figure 1 is shown below.  
<<flc1, fig=TRUE, include=FALSE>>=
fdata <- flchain[flchain$futime >=7,]
fdata$age2 <- cut(fdata$age, c(0,54, 59,64, 69,74,79, 89, 110),
                  labels = c(paste(c(50,55,60,65,70,75,80),
                                 c(54,59,64,69,74,79,89), sep='-'), "90+"))
fdata$group <- factor(1+ 1*(fdata$flc.grp >7) + 1*(fdata$flc.grp >9),
                      levels=1:3, 
                      labels=c("FLC < 3.38", "3.38 - 4.71", "FLC > 4.71"))
		      
sfit1 <- survfit(Surv(futime, death) ~ group, fdata)
plot(sfit1, mark.time=F, col=c(1,2,4), lty=1, lwd=2,
     xscale=365.25, xlab="Years from Sample", 
     ylab="Survival")
text(c(11.1, 10.5, 7.5)*365.25, c(.88, .57, .4),
     c("FLC < 3.38", "3.38 - 4.71", "FLC > 4.71"), col=c(1,2,4))     
@ 

\section{Reference populations}
There are a few populations that are commonly used as the
reference group.
\begin{enumerate}
  \item Empirical.  The overall distribution of confounders $x$ in the
    data set as a whole.  For this study we would use the observed
    age/sex distribution, ignoring FLC group.  This is also
    called the ``sample'' or ``data'' distribution.
  \item External reference.  The distribution from some external
    study or standard.  
  \item Internal reference.  A particular subset of the data is
    chosen as the reference, and other subsets are then aligned with
    it.  
\end{enumerate}
Method 2 is common in epidemiology, using a reference population based
on a large external population such as the age/sex distribution of the
2000 United States census.  Method 3 most often arises in
the case-control setting, where one group is small and precious 
(a rare disease say) and the other group (the controls) from which we can
sample is much larger.  
In each case the final result of the computation can be thought of as the
expected answer we ``would obtain'' in a study that was perfectly balanced with
respect to the list of confounders $x$.
Population 1 is the most frequent.


\section{Marginal approach}
\begin{table} \centering
  \begin{tabular}{crrrrrrrr}
  \multicolumn{3}{c}{Females} \\
& \multicolumn{8}{c}{Age} \\
FLC group & 50--54& 55--59& 60--64 & 65--69 & 70--74 & 75--79 & 80--89& 90+ \\
   \hline
<<echo=F, results=tex>>=

tab1 <- with(fdata, table(group, age2, sex))
cat("Low&", paste(tab1[1,,1], collapse=" &"), "\\\\\n")
cat("Med&", paste(tab1[2,,1], collapse=" &"), "\\\\\n")
cat("High&", paste(tab1[3,,1], collapse=" &"), "\\\\\n")
@ 
\\  \multicolumn{3}{c}{Males} \\
% & 50--54& 55--59& 60--64 & 65--69 & 70--74 & 75--79 & 80--89& 90+ \\ \hline

<<echo=F, results=tex>>=
cat("Low&", paste(tab1[1,,2], collapse=" &"), "\\\\\n")
cat("Med&", paste(tab1[2,,2], collapse=" &"), "\\\\\n")
cat("High&", paste(tab1[3,,2], collapse=" &"), "\n")
@ 
\end{tabular}
\caption{Detailed age and sex distribution for the study population}
\label{tab2}
\end{table}

\subsection{Selection}
One approach for balancing is to select a subset of the data
such that its distribution matches
the referent for each level of $c$, i.e., for each curve that we wish to
obtain.  
As an example we take a case-control like approach to the FLC data,
with FLC high
as the ``cases'' since it is the smallest group.
Table \ref{tab2} shows a detailed distribution of the data with
respect to age and sex.
 The balanced subset has all \Sexpr{tab1[3,1,1]} 
females aged 50--54 from the high FLC group,
a random sample of \Sexpr{tab1[3,1,1]} out of the \Sexpr{tab1[1,1,1]}
females in the age 50--54 low FLC group, 
and \Sexpr{tab1[3,1,1]} out of \Sexpr{tab1[2,1,1]} for the middle FLC.
Continue this for all age/sex subsets.
We cannot \emph{quite} compute a true case-control estimate for this
data since there are not enough ``controls'' in the female 90+ category
to be able to select one unique control for each case,
and likewise in the male 80-89 and 90+ age groups.  
To get around this we will sample with 
replacement in these strata.

\begin{figure}[tb]
  \myfig{flc2}
  \caption{Survival curves from a case-control sample are shown as solid
        lines, dashed lines are curves for the unweighted data set 
           (as found in  figure \ref{flc1}).}
\label{flc2}
\end{figure}
<<flc2, echo=TRUE, fig=TRUE, include=FALSE>>=
temp <- with(fdata, table(group, age2, sex))
dd <- dim(temp)

# Select subjects
set.seed(1978)
select <- array(vector('list', length=prod(dd)), dim=dd)
for (j in 1:dd[2]) {
    for (k in 1:dd[3]) {
        n <- temp[3,j,k] # how many to select
        for (i in 1:2) {
            indx <- which(as.numeric(fdata$group)==i &
                          as.numeric(fdata$age2) ==j &
                          as.numeric(fdata$sex) ==k)
            select[i,j,k] <- list(sample(indx, n, replace=(n> temp[i,j,k])))
        }
        indx <- which(as.numeric(fdata$group)==3 &
                      as.numeric(fdata$age2) ==j &
                      as.numeric(fdata$sex) ==k)
        select[3,j,k] <- list(indx)  #keep all the group 3 = high
    }
}

data2 <- fdata[unlist(select),]
sfit2 <- survfit(Surv(futime, death) ~ group, data2)
plot(sfit2,col=c(1,2,4),  lty=1, lwd=2,
     xscale=365.25, xlab="Years from Sample", 
     ylab="Survival")
lines(sfit1, col=c(1,2,4), lty=2, lwd=1,
      xscale=365.25)
legend(730, .4, levels(fdata$group), lty=1, col=c(1,2,4),
               bty='n', lwd=2)
@ 



%\begin{table}[tb] \centering
%  \begin{tabular}{ccccccc}
%  &\multicolumn{2}{c}{FLC low} & \multicolumn{2}{c}{FLC med}&
%    \multicolumn{2}{c}{FLC high} \\
% & Total & Subset & Total & Subset & Total & Subset \\ \hline
%<<echo=FALSE, results=tex>>=
%tab3 <- with(fdata, table(age2, group))
%tab3 <- round(100*scale(tab3, center=F, scale=colSums(tab3)))
%tab4 <- with(data2, table(age2, group))
%tab4 <- round(100*scale(tab4, center=F, scale=colSums(tab4)))
%tab5 <- cbind(tab3[,1], tab4[,1], tab3[,2], tab4[,2], tab3[,3], tab4[,3])
%pfun <- function(x) paste(ifelse(x<10, paste("\\phantom{0}", x), x),
%                          collapse=" &")
%dtemp <- dimnames(tab5)[[1]]
%for (j in 1:7) 
%    cat(dtemp[j], " &", pfun(tab5[j,]), "\\\\\n")
%cat(dtemp[8], " & ",    pfun(tab5[8,]), "\n")
%@ 
%\end{tabular}
%\caption{Age distributions (\%) of the original data set along with that of
%         the subset, for the three FLC groups.}
%\label{tflc2}
%\end{table}

The survival curves for the subset data are shown in figure \ref{flc2}.  
The curve for the high risk group is unchanged, since by definition
all of those subjects were retained.  We see that adjustment for
age and sex has reduced the apparent survival difference between
the groups by about half, but a clinically important effect for
high FLC values remains.
The curve for group 1 has moved more than that for group 2 since the
age/sex adjustment is more severe for that group.

<<echo=FALSE>>=
# I can't seem to put this all into an Sexpr
z1 <- with(fdata,table(age, sex, group))
z2<- apply(z1, 1:2, min)
ztemp <-  3*sum(z2)
z1b <- with(fdata, table(age>64, sex, group))
ztemp2 <- sum(apply(z1b, 1:2, min))
@ 

In actual practice, case-control designs arise when matching and
selection can occur \emph{before} data collection, leading to a
substantial decrease in the amount of data that needs to be
gathered and a consequent cost or time savings.  
When a data set is already in hand it has two major disadvantages.
The first is that the approach wastes data; throwing away information in
order to achieve balance is always a bad idea.
Second is that though it returns an unbiased comparison, the result
is for a very odd reference population.

One advantage of matched subsets is that standard variance calculations
for the curves are correct; the values provided by the usual Kaplan-Meier
program need no further processing.
We can also use the usual statistical tests to check for
differences between the curves.
<<>>=
survdiff(Surv(futime, death) ~ group, data=data2)
@ 

\subsection{Reweighting}
\label{sect:logistic}
A more natural way to adjust the data distribution is by weighting.
Let $\pi(a,s)$, $a$ = age group, $s$ = sex be a target population age/sex
distribution for our graph,
and $p(a,s,i)$ the observed probability of each age/sex/group combination
in the data.  Both $\pi$ and $p$ sum to 1.
Then if each observation in the data set is given a case weight of
\begin{equation}
  w_{asi} = \frac{\pi(a,s)}{p(a,s,i)} \label{wt1}
\end{equation}
the weighted age/sex distribution for each of the groups will equal 
the target distribution $\pi$.
An obvious advantage of this approach
is that the resulting curves represent a tangible and well defined group.

As an example, we will first adjust our curves to match the age/sex distribution
of the 2000 US population, a common reference target in epidemiology studies.
The \texttt{uspop2} data set is found in later releases of the survival
package in R.  It is an array of counts with dimensions of age,
sex, and calendar year.  We only want ages of 50 and over, and the population
data set has collapsed ages of 100 and over into a single category.
We create a table \texttt{tab100} of observed age/sex counts within group 
for our own data, using the same upper age threshold.
New weights are the values $\pi/p$ = \texttt{pi.us/tab100}.
<<>>=
refpop <- uspop2[as.character(50:100),c("female", "male"), "2000"]
pi.us  <- refpop/sum(refpop)
age100 <- factor(ifelse(fdata$age >100, 100, fdata$age), levels=50:100)
tab100 <- with(fdata, table(age100, sex, group))/ nrow(fdata)
us.wt  <- rep(pi.us, 3)/ tab100  #new weights by age,sex, group
range(us.wt)
@ 
There are infinite weights!  This is because the US population has coverage
at all ages, but our data set does not have representatives in every 
age/sex/FLC group combination; there are for instance no 95 year old males in
in the data set. 
Let us repeat the process, collapsing the US population from single years into
the 8 age groups used previously in table \ref{tab2}.
Merging the per age/sex/group weights found in the 3-dimensional array
\texttt{us.wt} into the data set as per-subject weights uses matrix 
subscripts, a useful but less known feature of R.
<<>>=
temp <- as.numeric(cut(50:100, c(49, 54, 59, 64, 69, 74, 79, 89, 110)+.5))
pi.us<- tapply(refpop, list(temp[row(refpop)], col(refpop)), sum)/sum(refpop)
tab2 <- with(fdata, table(age2, sex, group))/ nrow(fdata)
us.wt <- rep(pi.us, 3)/ tab2
range(us.wt)
index <- with(fdata, cbind(as.numeric(age2), as.numeric(sex), 
                           as.numeric(group)))
fdata$uswt <- us.wt[index]                      
sfit3a <-survfit(Surv(futime, death) ~ group, data=fdata, weight=uswt) 
@ 
\begin{figure}[tb]
  \myfig{flc3a}
  \caption{Population totals for the US reference (red) and for the observed
    data set (black).}
  \label{flc3a}
\end{figure}

A more common choice is to use the overall age/sex distribution of the 
sample itself as
our target distribution $\pi$, i.e., the empirical distribution.
Since FLC data set is population based and has excellent coverage
of the county, this will not differ greatly from the US population in this
case, as is displayed in figure \ref{flc3a}.

<<flc3a,  fig=TRUE, include=FALSE >>=
tab1 <- with(fdata, table(age2, sex))/ nrow(fdata)
matplot(1:8, cbind(pi.us, tab1), pch="fmfm", col=c(2,2,1,1),
        xlab="Age group", ylab="Fraction of population",
        xaxt='n')
axis(1, 1:8, levels(fdata$age2))

tab2 <- with(fdata, table(age2, sex, group))/nrow(fdata)
tab3 <- with(fdata, table(group)) / nrow(fdata)

rwt <- rep(tab1,3)/tab2 
fdata$rwt <- rwt[index]  # add per subject weights to the data set
sfit3 <- survfit(Surv(futime, death) ~ group, data=fdata, weight=rwt)

temp <- rwt[,1,]   #show female data
temp <- temp %*% diag(1/apply(temp,2,min))
round(temp, 1) #show female data
@ 

\begin{figure}[tb]
  \myfig{flc3}
  \caption{Survival curves for the three groups using reweighted data
           are shown with solid lines, the original unweighted analysis
           as dashed lines. The heavier solid line adjusts to the Olmsted
           population and the lighter one to the US population.}
  \label{flc3}
\end{figure}

<<flc3, fig=TRUE, include=FALSE>>=
plot(sfit3, mark.time=F, col=c(1,2,4), lty=1, lwd=2,
     xscale=365.25, xlab="Years from Sample", 
     ylab="Survival")
lines(sfit3a,  mark.time=F, col=c(1,2,4), lty=1, lwd=1,
      xscale=365.25)
lines(sfit1,  mark.time=F, col=c(1,2,4), lty=2, lwd=1,
      xscale=365.25)
legend(730, .4, levels(fdata$group), lty=1, col=c(1,2,4),
               bty='n', lwd=2)
@ 

The calculation of weights is shown above, and finishes with a table
of the weights for the females.  The table was scaled so as 
to have a minimum weight
of 1 in each column for simpler reading.
We see that for the low FLC group there are larger weights for
the older ages, whereas the high FLC group requires substantial
weights for the youngest ages in order to achieve balance.
The resulting survival curve is shown in figure \ref{flc3}.  The
distance between the adjusted curves is similar to the results
from subset selection, which is as expected since both approaches
are correcting for the same bias, but results are now for an overall population 
distribution that matches Olmsted County.
The curves estimate what the results would have looked like, had
each of the FLC groups contained the full distribution of ages.

Estimation based on reweighted data is a common theme in survey sampling.
Correct standard errors for the curves are readily computed using
methods from that literature, and are available in some software packages.
In R the \texttt{svykm} routine in the \texttt{survey} package handles both this
simple case and more complex sampling schemes.  
Tests of the curves can be done using a weighted Cox model;
the robust variance produced by \texttt{coxph} is identical to the standard
Horvitz-Thompsen variance estimate used in survey sampling \cite{Binder92}.
The robust score test from \texttt{coxph} corresponds to a log-rank test 
corrected for weighting.
(In the example below the svykm function is only run if the survey package
is already loaded, as the variance calculation is very slow for this large
data set.)
<<>>=
id <- 1:nrow(fdata)
cfit <- coxph(Surv(futime, death) ~ group, data=fdata, cluster=id,
              weight=rwt)
summary(cfit)$robscore

if (exists("svykm")) { #true if the survey package is loaded
    sdes <- svydesign(id = ~0, weights=~rwt, data=fdata)
    dfit <- svykm(Surv(futime, death) ~ group, design=sdes, se=TRUE)
}
@ 
Note: including the \texttt{cluster} term in the coxph call causes it to
treat the weights as resampling values and thus use the proper 
survey sampling style variance.  
The default without that term would be to treat the case weights as
replication counts. 
This same alternate variance estimate is also called for when there are
correlated observations; many users will be more familiar with the
cluster statement in that context.

\paragraph{Inverse probability weighting}
Notice that when using the overall population as the target distribution
$\pi$ we can use Bayes rule to rewrite the weights as
\begin{align*}
  \frac{1}{w_{asi}} &= \frac{{\rm Pr}({\rm age}=a, {\rm sex} =s, 
                                          {\rm group}=i)}
            {{\rm Pr}({\rm age}=a, {\rm sex} =s)} \\
    &= {\rm Pr}({\rm group}=i | {\rm age}=a, {\rm sex} =s)
\end{align*}

This last is precisely the probability estimated by a logistic
regression model, leading to \emph{inverse probability weighting}
as an alternate label for this approach.
We can reproduce the weights calculated just above with three
logistic regression models.
<<ipw>>=
options(na.action="na.exclude")
gg <- as.numeric(fdata$group)
lfit1 <- glm(I(gg==1) ~ factor(age2) * sex, data=fdata,
            family="binomial")
lfit2 <- glm(I(gg==2) ~ factor(age2) * sex, data=fdata,
            family="binomial")
lfit3 <- glm(I(gg==3) ~ factor(age2) * sex, data=fdata,
            family="binomial")
temp <- ifelse(gg==1, predict(lfit1, type='response'),
               ifelse(gg==2, predict(lfit2, type='response'),
                      predict(lfit3, type='response')))
all.equal(1/temp, fdata$rwt)
@ 
If there were only 2 groups then only a single regression model is
needed since P(group 2) = 1 - P(group 1).
Note the setting of na.action, which causes the predicted vector to have
the same length as the original data even when there are missing values.
This simplifies merging the derived weights with the original data set.

An advantage of the regression framework is that one can easily
accommodate more variables by using a model with additive terms
and only a few selected interactions, and the model can contain continuous
as well as categorical predictors.
The disadvantage is that such models are often used without the necessary
work to check their validity.  
For instance models with \texttt{age + sex} could have been used above.
This makes the assumption that the odds of being a member of group 1
is linear in age and with the same slope for males and females; ditto
for the models for group 2 and group 3.
How well does this work?
Since the goal of reweighting is to standardize the ages,
a reasonable check is to compute and plot the reweighted 
age distribution for each flc group.
 
\begin{figure}[tb]
  \myfig{flc4}
  \caption{The re-weighted age distribution using logistic regression
    with continuous age, for females, FLC groups 1--3.
    The target distribution is shown as a ``+''. 
  The original unadjusted distribution is shown as dashed lines.}
  \label{flc4}
\end{figure}
Figure \ref{flc4} shows the result. 
The reweighted age distribution is not perfectly balanced, i.e., the 
`1', `2' and `3' symbols do no exactly overlay one another,
but in this case the simple linear
model has done an excellent job.
We emphasize that whenever the reweighting is based on a simplified model
then such a check is obligatory.  
It is quite common that a simple model is not sufficient and the resulting
weight adjustment is inadequate. 
Like a duct tape auto repair, proceeding forward as though
the underlying problem has been addressed is then most unwise.
<<flc4, fig=T, include=F>>=
lfit1b <-glm(I(gg==1) ~ age + sex, data=fdata,
            family="binomial")
lfit2b <- glm(I(gg==2) ~ age +sex, data=fdata,
            family="binomial")
lfit3b <- glm(I(gg==3) ~ age + sex, data=fdata,
            family="binomial")

# weights for each group using simple logistic
twt <- ifelse(gg==1, 1/predict(lfit1b, type="response"),
              ifelse(gg==2, 1/predict(lfit2b, type="response"),
                                     1/predict(lfit3b, type="response")))
tdata <- data.frame(fdata, lwt=twt)

#grouped plot for the females
temp <- tdata[tdata$sex=='F',]
temp$gg <- as.numeric(temp$group)
c1 <- with(temp[temp$gg==1,], tapply(lwt, age2, sum))
c2 <- with(temp[temp$gg==2,], tapply(lwt, age2, sum))
c3 <- with(temp[temp$gg==3,], tapply(lwt, age2, sum))

xtemp <- outer(1:8, c(-.1, 0, .1), "+") #avoid overplotting
ytemp <- 100* cbind(c1/sum(c1), c2/sum(c2), c3/sum(c3))

matplot(xtemp, ytemp, col=c(1,2,4),
        xlab="Age group", ylab="Weighted frequency (%)", xaxt='n')
ztab <- table(fdata$age2)
points(1:8, 100*ztab/sum(ztab), pch='+', cex=1.5, lty=2)
# Add the unadjusted
temp <- tab2[,1,]
temp <- scale(temp, center=F, scale=colSums(temp))
matlines(1:8, 100*temp, pch='o', col=c(1,2,4), lty=2)
axis(1, 1:8, levels(fdata$age2))
@

\paragraph{Rescaled weights}
As the weights were defined in equation \ref{wt1}, the sum of weights
for each of the groups is \Sexpr{nrow(fdata)}, 
the number of observations in the
data set.  Since the number of subjects in group 3 is one seventh
of that in group 1, the average weight in group 3 is much larger.
An alternative is to define weights in terms of the \emph{within}
group distribution rather than the overall distribution, leading to 
the rescaled weights $w^*$
\begin{align}
   w^* &= \frac{\pi(a,s)}{p(a,s|i)} \label{wt2} \\
      &=  \frac{{\rm P}({\rm group}=i)}
       {{\rm P}({\rm group}=i | {\rm age}=a, {\rm sex}=s)} \label{wt2b}
\end{align}
Each group's weights are rescaled by the overall prevalence of the group.
In its simplest form, the weights in each group are scaled to add up to the
number of subjects in the group.
<<>>=
# compute new weights
wtscale <- table(fdata$group)/ tapply(fdata$rwt, fdata$group, sum)
wt2 <- c(fdata$rwt * wtscale[fdata$group])
c("rescaled cv"= sd(wt2)/mean(wt2), "rwt cv"=sd(fdata$rwt)/mean(fdata$rwt))

cfit2a <- coxph(Surv(futime, death) ~ group, cluster = id,
                data=fdata, weight= rwt)
cfit2b <- coxph(Surv(futime, death) ~ group, cluster = id,
                data=fdata, weight=wt2) 
round(c(cfit2a$rscore, cfit2b$rscore),1)
@ 
The rescaling results in weights that are much less variable
across groups.
This operation has no impact on the individual survival curves or
their standard errors, since within group we have multiplied all weights
by a constant.
When comparing curves across groups, however, the rescaled weights
reduce the standard error of the test statistic.
This results in increased power for the robust score test, although in
this particular data set the improvement is not very large.

\section{Conditional method}
In the marginal approach we first balance the data set and then compute
results on the adjusted data.  
In the conditional approach we first compute a predicted survival curve
for each subject that accounts for flc group, age and sex, 
and then take a weighted average of the curves to get an overall estimate
for each flc group.
For both methods a central consideration is the population of interest,
which drives the weights.  Modeling has not removed the question of
\emph{who} these curves should represent, it has simply changed the order of
operation between the weighting step and the survival curves step.

\subsection{Stratification}
Our first approach is to subset the data into homogeneous age/sex strata,
compute survival curves within each strata, and then combine results.
We will use the same age/sex combinations as before.
The interpretation of these groups is different, however. 
In the marginal approach it was important to find age/sex groups for
which the probability of membership within each FLC group was constant
within the strata (independent of age and sex, within strata), 
in this case it is important that the survival for each FLC group is
constant in each age/sex stratum.  Homogeneity of
membership within each stratum and homogeneity of survival within each
stratum may lead to different partitions for some data sets.

Computing curves for all the combinations is easy.
<<strata>>=
allfit <- survfit(Surv(futime, death) ~ group + 
                               age2 + sex, fdata)
temp <- summary(allfit)$table
temp[1:6, c(1,4)] #abbrev printout to fit page
@ 
The resultant survival object has 48 curves: 8 age groups * 2 sexes *
3 FLC groups.
To get a single curve for the first FLC group we need to take a weighted
average over the 16 age/sex combinations that apply to that group,
and similarly for the second and third FLC subset.
Combining the curves is a bit of a nuisance computationally
because each of them is reported on a different set of time points.
A solution is to use the 
\texttt{summary} function for survfit objects along with the \texttt{times}
argument of that function.  
This feature was originally designed to allow printout of curves at selected
time points (6 months, 1 year, \ldots), but can also be used to 
select a common set of time points for averaging.
We will arbitrarily use 4 per year, which is sufficient to create a
visually smooth plot over the time span of interest.
By default \texttt{summary} does not return data for times beyond the
end of a curve,
i.e., when there are no subjects left at risk;
the \texttt{extend} argument causes
a full set of times to always be reported.
As seen in the printout above, the computed curves are in
sex within age within group order.
The overall curve is a weighted average chosen to match the original
age/sex distribution of the population.

<<flc5, fig=TRUE, include=FALSE>>=
xtime <- seq(0, 14, length=57)*365.25  #four points/year for 14 years
smat <- matrix(0, nrow=57, ncol=3) # survival curves
serr <- smat  #matrix of standard errors
pi <- with(fdata, table(age2, sex))/nrow(fdata)  #overall dist
for (i in 1:3) {
    temp <- allfit[1:16 + (i-1)*16] #curves for group i
    for (j in 1:16) {
        stemp <- summary(temp[j], times=xtime, extend=T)
        smat[,i] <- smat[,i] + pi[j]*stemp$surv
        serr[,i] <- serr[,i] + pi[j]*stemp$std.err^2
        }
    }
serr <- sqrt(serr)

plot(sfit1, lty=2, col=c(1,2,4), xscale=365.25,
     xlab="Years from sample", ylab="Survival")
matlines(xtime, smat, type='l', lwd=2, col=c(1,2,4),lty=1)
@ 
\begin{figure}[tb]
  \myfig{flc5}
  \caption{Estimated curves from a stratified model, along with those
    from the uncorrected fit as dashed lines.}
  \label{flc5}
\end{figure}
Figure \ref{flc5} shows the resulting averaged curves.
Overlaid are the curves for the unadjusted model.
Very careful comparison of these curves with the weighted estimate
shows that they have almost identical spread, with just a tiny amount
of downward shift.

There are two major disadvantages to the stratified curves.
The first is that when the original data set is small 
or the number of confounders is
large, it is not always feasible to stratify into a
large enough set of groups that each will be homogeneous.
The second is a technical aspect of the standard error estimate.
Since the curves are formed from disjoint sets of observations they
are independent and the variance of the weighted average is then a weighted
sum of variances.  However,
when a Kaplan-Meier curve drops to zero the usual standard error
estimate at that point involves 0/0 and becomes undefined,
leading to the NaN (not a number) value in R. 
Thus the  overall standard error becomes undefined if any of the 
component curves falls to zero.  
In the above example this happens  at about the
half way point of the graph.
(Other software packages carry forward the se value from the last
no-zero point on the curve, but the statistical validity of this is
uncertain.)

To test for overall difference between the curves we can use a stratified
test statistic, which is a sum of the test statistics computed within each
subgroup.  The most common choice is the stratified log-rank statistic
which is shown below.  
The score test from a stratified Cox model would give the same result.
<<>>=
survdiff(Surv(futime, death) ~ group + strata(age2, sex), fdata)
@ 

\subsection{Modeling}
The other approach for conditional estimation
is to model the risks due to the confounders.
Though we have left it till last, this is usually the first 
(and most often the only) approach used by most data analysts.

Let's start with the very simplest method: a stratified Cox
model.
<<flc8, echo=TRUE, eval=TRUE, fig=TRUE, include=FALSE>>=
cfit4a <- coxph(Surv(futime, death) ~ age + sex + strata(group),
               data=fdata)
surv4a <- survfit(cfit4a)
plot(surv4a, col=c(1,2,4), mark.time=F, xscale=365.25,
     xlab="Years post sample", ylab="Survival")
@ 
This is a very fast and easy way to produce a set of curves,
but it has three problems.
First is the assumption that this simple
model adequately accounts for the effects of age and sex on survival.
That is, it assumes that the effect of age on mortality is linear, the 
sex difference is constant across all ages, and that the
coefficients for both are identical for the three FLC groups.
The second problem with this approach is that it
produces the predicted curve for a single hypothetical subject 
of age \Sexpr{round(cfit4a[['means']][1], 1)} years and sex
\Sexpr{round(cfit4a[['means']][2],2)}, the means of the
covariates, under each of the 3 FLC scenarios. 
However, we are interested in the adjusted survival of a \emph{cohort}
of subjects in each range of FLC, and
the survival of an ``average'' subject is not the average
survival of a cohort.
The third and most serious issue is that it is not clear exactly
what these ``adjusted'' curves represent --- 
exactly who \emph{is} this subject with a sex of 
\Sexpr{round(cfit4a[['means']][2],2)}?
Multiple authors have commented on this problem,
see Thomsen et al \cite{Thomsen91}, Nieto and Coresh \cite{Nieto96}
or chapter 10 of Therneau and Grambsh \cite{Therneau00} for examples.
Even worse is a Cox model that treated the FLC group as a covariate,
since that will impose an additional constraint of proportional 
hazards across the 3 FLC groups.

\begin{figure}
  \myfig{flc6}
  \caption{Curves for the three groups, adjusted for age and sex via
    a risk model.  Dotted lines show the curves from marginal adjustment.
    Solid curves are for the simple risk model \texttt{cfit4a}.}
  \label{flc6}
\end{figure}

We can address this last problem  problem by doing a proper average.
A Cox model fit can produce the predicted curves for any
age/sex combination. The key idea is to produce a predicted survival
curve for every subject of some hypothetical population, and then
take the average of these curves.
The most straightforward approach is to retrieve the predicted individual 
curves for all
\Sexpr{nrow(fdata)} subjects in the data set, assuming each of the three
FLC strata one by one, and take a simple average for each strata.
For this particular data set that is a bit slow since it involves
\Sexpr{nrow(fdata)} curves.  However there are only 98
unique age/sex pairs in the data, 
it is sufficient to obtain the 98 * 3 FLC groups unique curves and
take a weighted average.
We will make use of the survexp function, which is designed for just this
purpose.
Start by creating a data set which has one row for each age/sex combination
along with its count.
Then replicate it into 3 copies, assigning one copy to each of the three
FLC strata.  

<<flc6, echo=TRUE, fig=TRUE, include=FALSE>>=
tab4a <- with(fdata, table(age, sex))
uage <- as.numeric(dimnames(tab4a)[[1]])
tdata <- data.frame(age = uage[row(tab4a)],
                    sex = c("F","M")[col(tab4a)],
                    count= c(tab4a))
tdata3 <- tdata[rep(1:nrow(tdata), 3),]  #three copies
tdata3$group <- factor(rep(1:3, each=nrow(tdata)), 
                       labels=levels(fdata$group))
sfit4a <- survexp(~group, data=tdata3, weight = count, 
                    ratetable=cfit4a) 

plot(sfit4a, mark.time=F, col=c(1,2,4), lty=1, lwd=2,
     xscale=365.25, xlab="Years from Sample", 
     ylab="Survival")
lines(sfit3,  mark.time=F, col=c(1,2,4), lty=2, lwd=1,
      xscale=365.25)
legend(730,.4, c("FLC low", "FLC med", "FLC high"), lty=1, col=c(1,2,4),
               bty='n', lwd=2)
@ 
Figure \ref{flc6} shows the result.  Comparing this to the prior 3
adjustments shown in figures \ref{flc3}, \ref{flc4}, and \ref{flc5}
we see that this result is different.  Why?
Part of the reason is due to the fact that $E[f(X)] \ne f(E[X])$
for any non-linear operation $f$, so that averages of survival
curves and survival curves of averages will never be exactly
the same.
This may explain the small difference between the stratified and
the marginal approaches of figures \ref{flc3} and \ref{flc5},
which were based on the same subsets.
The Cox based result is systematically higher than the stratified
one, however, so something more is indicated.

Aside: 
An alternate computational approach is to create the individual 
survival curves using
the \texttt{survfit} function and then take averages.
<<>>=
tfit <- survfit(cfit4a, newdata=tdata, se.fit=FALSE)
curves <- vector('list', 3)
twt <- c(tab4a)/sum(tab4a)
for (i in 1:3) {
    temp <- tfit[i,]
    curves[[i]] <- list(time=temp$time, surv= c(temp$surv %*% twt))
    }
@ 
The above code is a bit sneaky.  I know that the result from the
survfit function contains a matrix \texttt{tfit\$surv} 
of 104 columns, one for each row in the tdata data
frame, each column containing the curves for the three strata one after
the other.  Sub setting \texttt{tfit} results in the matrix for a single
flc group.
Outside of R an approach like the above may be needed, however.

\begin{figure}
  \myfig{flc6b}
  \caption{Left panel: comparison of Cox model based adjustment (solid) with the
     curves based on marginal adjustment (dashed).  
     The Cox model curves without (black) and with (red) an age*sex interaction
           term overlay.
     Right panel: plot of the predicted relative risks from a Cox model
     \texttt{crate} versus population values from 
     the Minnesota rate table.}
  \label{flc6b}
\end{figure}

So why are the modeling results so different than either reweighting
or stratification?
Suspicion first falls on the use of a simple linear model for
age and sex, so start by
fitting a slightly more refined model that allows
for a different slope for the two sexes, but is still linear in age.
In this particular data set an external check on the fit is also
available via the Minnesota death rate tables, which are included
with the survival package as \texttt{survexp.mn}.  This is an
array that contains daily death rates by age, sex, and calendar year.
<<flc6b, fig=TRUE, include=FALSE>>=
par(mfrow=c(1,2))
cfit4b <- coxph(Surv(futime, death) ~ age*sex + strata(group),
                fdata)
sfit4b <- survexp(~group, data=tdata3, ratetable=cfit4b, weights=count)
plot(sfit4b, fun='event', xscale=365.25,
     xlab="Years from sample", ylab="Deaths")
lines(sfit3, mark.time=FALSE, fun='event', xscale=365.25, lty=2)
lines(sfit4a, fun='event', xscale=365.25, col=2)

temp <- median(fdata$sample.yr)                                
mrate <- survexp.mn[as.character(uage),, as.character(temp)]
crate <- predict(cfit4b, newdata=tdata, reference='sample', type='lp')
crate <- matrix(crate, ncol=2)[,2:1] # mrate has males then females, match it
# crate contains estimated log(hazards) relative to a baseline,
#  and mrate absolute hazards, make both relative to a 70 year old
for (i in 1:2) {
    mrate[,i] <- log(mrate[,i]/ mrate[21,2])
    crate[,i] <- crate[,i] - crate[21,2]
    }
matplot(mrate, crate, col=2:1, type='l')
abline(0, 1, lty=2, col=4)
@ 
The resulting curves are shown in the left panel of
figure \ref{flc6b} and reveal that addition of an interaction term
did not change the predictions, and that the Cox model result
for the highest risk group is distinctly different
predicted survival for the highest FLC group is distinctly different
when using model based prediction.
The right hand panel of the figure shows that though there are slight
differences with the Minnesota values, linearity of the age effect
is very well supported. 
So where exactly does the model go wrong?  Since this is such a
large data set we have the luxury of looking at subsets.
This would be a very large number of curves to plot ---
age by sex by FLC = 48 --- so an overlay of the observed and expected
curves by group would be too confusing.
Instead we will summarize each of the groups according to their
observed and predicted number of events.
<<fig=TRUE, include=FALSE>>=
obs <- with(fdata, tapply(death, list(age2, sex, group), sum))
pred<- with(fdata, tapply(predict(cfit4b, type='expected'),
              list(age2, sex, group), sum))
excess <- matrix(obs/pred, nrow=8)  #collapse 3 way array to 2
dimnames(excess) <- list(dimnames(obs)[[1]], c("low F", "low M",
                                               "med F", "med M",
                                               "high F", "high M"))
round(excess, 1)
@ 
The excess risks, defined as the observed/expected number of deaths,
are mostly modest ranging from .8 to 1.2.
The primary exception exception is the high FLC group for ages 50--59
which has values of 1.6 to 2.5;  
the Cox model fit has greatly overestimated the survival for the
age 50--54 and 55--59 groups.
Since this is also the age category with the highest count in the data
set, this overestimation will have a large impact on the overall
curve for high FLC subset, which is exactly where the the deviation
in figure \ref{flc6b} is observed to lie.
There is also mild evidence for a linear trend in age for the low FLC females,
in the other direction.
Altogether this suggests that the model might need to have a different
age coefficient for each of the three FLC groups.
<<>>=
cfit5a <- coxph(Surv(futime, death) ~ strata(group):age +sex, fdata)
cfit5b <- coxph(Surv(futime, death) ~ strata(group):(age +sex), fdata)
cfit5c <- coxph(Surv(futime, death) ~ strata(group):(age *sex), fdata)

options(show.signif.stars=FALSE) # see footnote
anova(cfit4a, cfit5a, cfit5b, cfit5c)
temp <- coef(cfit5a)
names(temp) <- c("sex", "ageL", "ageM", "ageH")
round(temp,3)
@ 
The model with separate age coefficients for each FLC group gives a
major improvement in goodness of fit, 
but adding separate sex coefficients per group
or further interactions does not add importantly
beyond that. 
\footnote{There are certain TV shows that make one dumber just by
  watching them; adding stars to the output has the same effect on 
  statisticians.}

\begin{figure}
  \myfig{flc7}
  \caption{Adjusted survival for the 3 FLC groups based on the
    improved Cox model fit. Dashed lines show the predictions
    from the marginal model.}
  \label{flc7}
\end{figure}

A recheck of the observed/expected values now shows a much more
random pattern, though some excess remains in the upper
right corner.  The updated survival curves are shown in
figure \ref{flc7} and now are 
in closer concordance with the marginal fit.
<<flc7, include=FALSE, fig=TRUE>>=
pred5a <- with(fdata, tapply(predict(cfit5a, type='expected'),
              list(age2, sex, group), sum))
excess5a <- matrix(obs/pred5a, nrow=8,
                   dimnames=dimnames(excess))
round(excess5a, 1)

sfit5  <- survexp(~group,  data=tdata3, ratetable=cfit5a, weights=count)
plot(sfit3, fun='event', xscale=365.25, mark.time=FALSE, lty=2, col=c(1,2,4),
     xlab="Years from sample", ylab="Deaths")
lines(sfit5, fun='event', xscale=365.25, col=c(1,2,4))
@ 
One problem with the model based estimate is that standard errors for the
curves are complex.
Standard errors of the individual curves for each age/sex/FLC combination
are a standard output of the survfit function, but the collection of curves is
correlated since they all depend on a common estimate of the model's coefficient
vector $\beta$.
Curves with disparate ages are anti-correlated (an increase in the age coefficient
of the model would raise one and lower the other) whereas those for close ages are
positively correlated.  
A proper variance for the unweighted average has been derived by Gail and
Byar \cite{Gail86},
but this has not been implemented in any of the standard packages, nor extended
to the weighted case.  
A bootstrap estimate would appear to be the most feasible.

\section{Conclusions}
When two populations need to be adjusted and one is much larger than the other, 
the balanced subset method has been popular.
It is most often seen in the
context of a case-control study, with cases as the rarer group and a set
of matched controls selected from the larger one.  
This method has the advantage that the usual standard error estimates from a 
standard package are appropriate, so no further work is required.
However, in the general situation it leads to a correct answer but for the wrong
problem, i.e., not for a population in which we are interested.


The population reweighted estimate is flexible, has a readily available variance
in some statistical packages (but not all), and the result is directly
interpretable.  It is the method we recommend in general.
The approach can be extended to a large number of balancing factors by using a
regression model to derive the weights.  Exploration and checking of said model
for adequacy is an important step in this case.  
The biggest downside to the method
arises when there is a subset which is rare in the data sample but frequent in 
the adjusting population.  In this case subjects in that subset will be assigned
large weights, and the resulting curves will have high variance.

The stratified method is closely related to reweighting (not shown).  
It does not
do well if the sample size is small, however.

Risk set modeling is a very flexible method, but is also the one where it is 
easiest to go wrong by using an inadequate model, and variance estimation is
also difficult.
To the extent that the fitted model is relevant, it 
allows for interpolation and extrapolation to a reference population with
a different distribution of covariates than the one in the training data.
It may be applicable in cases such as rare subsets where population
reweighting is problematic, with the understanding that one is depending
heavily on extrapolation in this case, which is always dangerous.

\section{A note on type 3 tests}
One particular software package (not R) and its proponents are very fond
of something called ``type 3'' tests.
Said tests are closely tied to a particular reference population:
\begin{itemize}
  \item For all continuous covariates in the model, the empirical 
    distribution is used as the reference.
  \item For all categorical adjusters, a uniform distribution over the 
    categories is used.
\end{itemize}

  Figure \ref{flc8} shows the fit from such a model.  Not surprisingly, the
predicted death rate is very high: 1/4 of our population is over 80 years old! 
The authors do not find such a prediction particularly useful
since we don't ever expect to see a population like this
(it's sort of like planning for the zombie apocalypse),
but for those enamored of type 3 tests this shows how to create the
corresponding curves.

<<flc8, include=FALSE, fig=TRUE>>=
# there is a spurious warning from the model below: R creates 3 unneeded
# columns in the X matrix
cfit6 <- coxph(Surv(futime, death) ~ strata(group):age2 + sex, fdata)

saspop <- with(fdata, expand.grid(age2= levels(age2), sex= levels(sex),
                                  group = levels(group)))

sfit6  <- survexp(~group,  data=saspop, ratetable=cfit6)
plot(sfit6, fun='event', xscale=365.25, mark.time=FALSE, lty=1, col=c(1,2,4),
     xlab="Years from sample", ylab="Deaths")
lines(sfit5, fun='event', xscale=365.25, lty=2, col=c(1,2,4))
@ 
\begin{figure}
  \myfig{flc8}
  \caption{Adjusted survival for the 3 FLC groups based on a fit with
    categorical age, and predicting for a uniform age/sex population.
    Dashed lines show the predictions from the marginal model.}
  \label{flc8}
\end{figure}

\newpage
\bibliographystyle{plain}
\bibliography{refer}
\end{document}


